Dr. Ahmed Hafez

Fibre to Fabric

1. Which one of the following is a synthetic fibre? a.) Rayon b.) Nylon c.) Polyester d.) All of the above Answer – (d.) All of the above Explanation – Synthetic fibres are man-made polymers that are used to create fabric. Polymers are formed when many small units are chemically joined together.   2. The process of separating cotton fibres from the seeds is called ____. a.) Retting b.) Ginning c.) Weaving d.) Spinning Answer – (b.) Ginning Explanation – Ginning is the process of separating cotton fibres from cotton seeds or lint. It also aids in the removal of

ECG of heart block

https://youtu.be/LhAOb9O8LGo ECG of heart block ECG training course Date of show : 18 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Heart block

Extrasystole arrhythmias

https://youtu.be/95HV64rPXZA Extrasystole arrhythmias ECG training course Date of show : 16 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Extrasystole arrhythmias

Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations

https://youtu.be/ZTEZGhaQ740 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations ECG training course Date of show : 14 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Arrhythmia, Flutters & Fibrilations

ECG of heart rate disorders

https://youtu.be/6AJzzA_5NDk ECG in heart rate disorders ECG training course Date of show : 12 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Heart rate disorders

ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI

https://youtu.be/a1aWjGqhmIY ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI ECG training course Date of show : 10 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction

ECG of Atrial and ventricular hypertrophy

https://youtu.be/wGz1jQD9YLU ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy ECG training course Date of show : 08 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19

Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation

https://youtu.be/eW6B1K6dZuo Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation ECG training course Date of show : 06 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Normal ECG and Heart Rate calculation

Heart axis deviation and alfa angle

https://youtu.be/Qr-G4Sw71zk Heart axis deviation and alfa angle ECG training course Date of show : 04 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Heart axis deviation

Introduction to ECG – 1st part

https://youtu.be/wEgCgh4LI7E Introduction to ECG – 1st part ECG training course Date of show : 02 May 2024, 09:00 PM CAI Introduction to ECG – 1st part 20:19 Heart axis deviation and alfa angle 23:13 Normal ECG values and heart rate calculation 37:53 ECG of atrial and ventricular hypertrophy 31:37 ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction MI 18:56 ECG of heart rate disorders 17:21 Arrhythmia, Flutters and Fibrillations 22:50 Extrasystole arrhythmias 14:49 ECG of heart block 27:19 PDF materials of lesson : Introduction to ECG for beginners

Heart block

  Sinus blockade The normal heart beat starts in the sinus node that contains the fastest pacemaker cells. If no impulse should reach the atrium, and no atrial rescue impulse appears, there will be a pause without any P wave. The pause – sinus arrest – may be brief or long. When a pause exceeds 3-5 seconds, the patient may experience dizziness or a fainting spell. Usually, the normal rhythm soon recovers, and the patient immediately feels well. Important notes : » If the speed is 50 mm/sec;      1 mm = 0.02 sec» If the speed is 25

Extrasystole arrhythmias

  Supraventricular extrasystoles   Sinus extrasystoles » Sinus node reentry» Normal sinus form P, unchanged ventricular complex» The post-extrasystolic pause is equal to the length of the normal sinus cycle   Atrial extrasystoles » Extraordinary altered P wave, narrow QRS, supraventricular type, incomplete compensatory pause » With lower atrial extrasystole, the P wave can be negative in II, III, aVF   AV extrasystoles » The extrasystolic impulse arising in the AV node propagates in two directions: retrograde to the atria and the usual way to the ventricles. Therefore, the QRS complex has an unchanged appearance, and the excitation of the

Arrhythmia, Flutters & Fibrillations

  Sinus arrhythmia » If the difference between the maximum and minimum P-P (R-R) is more than 0.1 sec (or more than 10% compared to the mean), then this is sinus arrhythmia» Respiratory arrhythmia : sinus arrhythmia is associated with the phases of breathing » No difference in P-P values – rigid sinus node (damage to sinus node cells) Normal rhythm : » Must be sinus, that’s means each P wave is followed by QRS complex » Must be regular – the difference between the longest and the shortest R-R interval does not exceed 0.1 sec » Must be equality of

Heart rate disorders

  Sinus rate disorders » Sinus rate means this impulses that are produced by sinoatrial node “SA-node”» Normal sinus rate : 60 : 100 beats per minute   Sinus bradycardia • Sinus rhythm with a frequency of less than 60 bpm• PQ can be extended up to 0.21 s, other intervals are normal• ST is sometimes raised above the isoline, concave, the T wave is widened at the base and increased in amplitude   Sinus tachycardia • Frequent sinus rhythm with more than 100 bpm• The maximum rate of the rhythm of the atria and ventricles is the same and

ECG changes in Myocardial Infarction

Our goal : To detect » Stage of myocardial infarction» Area of heart wall which affected» Coronary branch which occluded        To detect stage of MI   Stages of Myocardial Infarction – [ MI ]   Pre-acute stage   Evolving period   » ST elevation   Acute stage   Attack period » Pathological Q formation » ST elevation Pathological Q: depth more than ¼ of R amplitude in the same lead, its width (duration) more 0.03 sec   Sub-acute stage   Healing period » Pathological Q» ST at isoline» Coronary T (negative symmetric)   Post Infarction   Healed

Atrial and ventricular hypertrophy

Normal ECG values : Prong P < 2.5 mm height, 0.05 – 0.11 sec. duration.» P is positive in lead II.» The height of P should not exceed the height of T in the same lead.» P can be biphasic in III, aVL, V1 Galery Important notes : » If the speed is 50 mm/sec;      1 mm = 0.02 sec» If the speed is 25 mm/sec;      1 mm = 0.04 sec   Atrial hypertrophy characters   Right atrium hypertrophy Overload by pressure or volume • Prong P is high (>2.5 mm) and pointed in II, III,

Normal ECG and Heart Rate calculation

  ECG cycle components Atrial depolarization (P) axis : it is the general direction in which atrial depolarization conducts PR segments : From the end point of P wave to the start point QRS complex PR interval : Summation of P wave and PR segment , From the start point of P wave to the start point of QRS complex Ventricular depolarization (QRS) axis : it is the general direction in which depolarization conducts ST segment : from the end point of S wave to the start point of T wave Ventricular repolarization (T) axis : it is the general

Heart axis deviation

 Main ECG waves Atrial depolarization (P) axis : it is the general direction in which atrial depolarization conducts Ventricular depolarization (QRS) axis : it is the general direction in which depolarization conducts Ventricular repolarization (T) axis : it is the general direction in which ventricular repolarization conducts Rt : RightLt : Leftmv : Milli voltaVR : Augmented Voltage on Right armaVL : Augmented Voltage on Left armaVF : Augmented Voltage on FootRA : Right AtriumLA : Left AtriumRV : Right VentricleLV : Left VentricleLI : Lead 1LII : Lead 2LIII : Lead 3 Definition Of Mean QRS Axis : The

Introduction to ECG

Clinical values of ECG By the end of this course you will learn how to detect many diseases by ECG which is important, easy & inexpensive clinical test as following : Heart rate : Normal, bradycardia or tachycardia How to detect Heart axis and measure α angle Hypertrophy of both aria & ventricles on both sides right and left Myocardial Infarction, type, localization & stage Arrhythmia types, localization & stages Heart blocks, types & stages unusual syndromes of arrhythmia Features of Time voltage chart The P-QRS-T sequence is usually recorded on special ECG graph paper that is divided into grid-like

Hypovolemic Shock

Background Hypovolemic shock refers to a medical or surgical condition in which rapid fluid loss results in multiple organ failure due to inadequate circulating volume and subsequent inadequate perfusion. Endothelium plays a critical role in vascular physiological, pathophysiological, and reparative processes. The functions of the endothelium are highly altered following hypovolemic shock due to ischemia of the endothelial cells and by reperfusion due to resuscitation with fluids. Due to oxygen deprivation, endothelial cell apoptosis is induced following hypovolemic shock.  Most often, hypovolemic shock is secondary to rapid blood loss (hemorrhagic shock). Acute external blood loss secondary to penetrating trauma and

Hypoglycemic coma

Practice Essentials Hypoglycemia is characterized by a reduction in plasma glucose concentration to a level that may induce symptoms or signs such as altered mental status and/or sympathetic nervous system stimulation. This condition typically arises from abnormalities in the mechanisms involved in glucose homeostasis. The most common cause of hypoglycemia in patients with diabetes is injecting a shot of insulin and skipping a meal or overdosing insulin.  The image below depicts a diagnostic algorithm for hypoglycemia. Signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia The glucose level at which an individual becomes symptomatic is highly variable (threshold generally at < 50 mg/dL). Carefully

Metabolic Acidosis Coma

Practice Essentials Metabolic acidosis is a clinical disturbance characterized by an increase in plasma acidity. Metabolic acidosis should be considered a sign of an underlying disease process. Identification of this underlying condition is essential to initiate appropriate therapy.  The initial therapeutic goal for patients with severe acidemia is to raise the systemic pH above 7.1-7.2, a level at which dysrhythmias become less likely and cardiac contractility and responsiveness to catecholamines will be restored. This article discusses the differential diagnosis of metabolic acidosis and presents a scheme for identifying the underlying cause of acidosis by using laboratory tests that are available

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State HHS Coma

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is a life-threatening emergency manifested by marked elevation of blood glucose and hyperosmolarity with little or no ketosis. Although there are multiple precipitating causes, underlying infections are the most common. Other causes include certain medications, nonadherence to therapy, undiagnosed diabetes mellitus, substance abuse, and coexisting disease. In children and adolescents, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is often present when type 2 diabetes is diagnosed. Physical findings include profound dehydration and neurologic symptoms ranging from lethargy to coma. Treatment begins with intensive monitoring of the patient and laboratory values, especially glucose, sodium, and potassium levels. Vigorous correction of dehydration is

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) coma

Practice Essentials Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an acute, major, life-threatening complication of diabetes characterized by hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis, and ketonuria. It occurs when absolute or relative insulin deficiency inhibits the ability of glucose to enter cells for utilization as metabolic fuel, the result being that the liver rapidly breaks down fat into ketones to employ as a fuel source. The overproduction of ketones ensues, causing them to accumulate in the blood and urine and turn the blood acidic. DKA occurs mainly in patients with type 1 diabetes, but it is not uncommon in some patients with type 2 diabetes. Laboratory studies

Cerebral coma

What Is a Coma? A coma is a prolonged state of unconsciousness. During a coma, a person is unresponsive to their environment. The person is alive and looks like they are sleeping. However, unlike in a deep sleep, the person cannot be awakened by any stimulation, including pain. A coma is a prolonged state of unconsciousness. It is caused by an injury to the brain that can be due to increased pressure, bleeding, loss of oxygen, or buildup of toxins. The injury can be temporary and reversible but can also be permanent and lead to death. Coma Causes A coma

Cardiogenic shock

Cardiogenic shock is a medical emergency resulting from inadequate blood flow to the body’s organs due to the dysfunction of the heart. Signs of inadequate blood flow include low urine production (<30 mL/hour), cool arms and legs, and decreased level of consciousness. People may also have a severely low blood pressure and heart rate. Causes of cardiogenic shock include cardiomyopathic, arrhythmic, and mechanical. Cardiogenic shock is most commonly precipitated by a heart attack. Treatment of cardiogenic shock depends on the cause with the initial goals to improve blood flow to the body. If cardiogenic shock is due to a heart

Uremic Encephalopathy

Practice Essentials Uremic encephalopathy is an organic brain disorder. It develops in patients with acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease, usually when the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) falls and remains below 15 mL/min.  Manifestations of this syndrome vary from mild symptoms (eg, lassitude, fatigue) to severe signs (eg, seizures, coma). Severity and progression depend on the rate of decline in kidney function; thus, symptoms are usually worse in patients with acute kidney injury. Prompt identification of uremia as the cause of encephalopathy is essential because symptoms are readily reversible following initiation of dialysis. Pathophysiology Uremic encephalopathy has a

Pneumothorax coma

Practice Essentials Pneumothorax is defined as the presence of air or gas in the pleural cavity (ie, the potential space between the visceral and parietal pleura of the lung), which can impair oxygenation and/or ventilation. The clinical results are dependent on the degree of collapse of the lung on the affected side. If the pneumothorax is significant, it can cause a shift of the mediastinum and compromise hemodynamic stability. Air can enter the intrapleural space through a communication from the chest wall (ie, trauma) or through the lung parenchyma across the visceral pleura. See the image below. Signs and symptoms

Coma Due to Poisoning: Caution Urged in Intubation

Tracheal intubation is recommended for comatose patients, but its use in individuals with altered consciousness due to acute poisoning remains uncertain. A French team conducted a large randomized trial to assess the risk–benefit ratio of a conservative approach in this context. Patients with altered consciousness are at high risk for respiratory distress and pneumonia. Acute poisoning, whether from alcohol, drugs, or medications, is a nontraumatic cause of altered consciousness that often leads to intubation. In the United States alone, 20,000 patients with acute poisoning are intubated annually. While this practice aims to prevent the inhalation of gastric content and, consequently,

Anaphylactic coma

Anaphylaxis is a serious, potentially fatal allergic reaction and medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of use of emergency medication on site. It typically causes more than one of the following: an itchy rash, throat closing due to swelling that can obstruct or stop breathing; severe tongue swelling that can also interfere with or stop breathing; shortness of breath, vomiting, lightheadedness, loss of consciousness, low blood pressure, and medical shock. These symptoms typically start in minutes to hours and then increase very rapidly to life-threatening levels. Urgent medical treatment is required to prevent serious harm and death, even if the patient has used an epipen or

Hepatic encephalopathy & coma

Key words: Hepatic failure, encephalopathy, neuro- logical alteration, astrocytes, ammonium. Abstract Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a complication that presents in as many as 28% of patients with cirrhosis, and reported up to ten years after the diagnosis of cir- rhosis. Commonly, it is observed in patients with se- vere hepatic failure and is characterized by neuropsy- chiatric manifestations that can range in severity from a mild alteration in mental state to a coma; additional- ly, some neuromuscular symptoms can be observed. This complication of either acute or chronic hepatic disease is the result of a diminished hepatic reservoir and inability

Alcoholic coma – Acute alcohol intoxication

Key words: AUD, Fetal Alcoholic Spectrum Disorder, toxicity, binge, addiction, withdrawal Abstract Alcohol is a legal and yet detrimental psychoactive substance, capable of establishing addiction and impacting the physical, mental, social, and economic health of people. Alcohol intake causes a large variety of tissue damages severely impacting the nervous system, digestive and cardiovascular systems and causing oral cavity, oropha- ryngeal, hypopharyngeal, esophageal, colon-rectal, laryngeal, liver and intrahepatic bile duct, and breast cancers. Alcohol can also play a role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus, cardiomyopathy and hemorrhagic strokes. When drunk during pregnancy it is proved to be responsible for serious

Kaposi’s sarcoma 

Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) is a rare type of soft tissue sarcoma. A soft tissue sarcoma is a type of cancer. What is Kaposi’s sarcoma? Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) develops from cells called endothelial cells, which line the blood and lymph vessels. It is most commonly found on the skin, but it can also affect the inside of the body, such as the lymph nodes, lungs, bowel, liver and spleen. KS growths are also called lesions or tumours.  KS develops in a different way from other types of cancer. Most cancers begin in one place in the body and may then spread to

Treatment for Large bowel and rectal neuroendocrine tumours (NETs)

The treatment you have for a large bowel or rectal neuroendocrine tumour (NET) depends on a number of factors. This includes where the cancer started, its size and whether it has spread (the stage). Surgery is the main treatment for large bowel and rectal NETs and is usually the only treatment that can cure it. Which treatment do I need? A team of doctors and other professionals discuss the best treatment and care for you. They are called a multidisciplinary team (MDT).  The treatment you have depends on: where the large bowel or rectal NET started and its size whether

Linitis plastica of the stomach

Gastric linitis plastica is the medical term for a rare type of stomach (gastric) cancer. It can thicken your stomach wall and affect digestion. Treatment for linitis plastica is like treatment for other types of stomach cancers. What is linitis plastica? Linitis plastica is a type of adenocarcinoma. Adenocarcinoma is the most common form of stomach cancer. Linitis plastica spreads to the muscles of the stomach wall and makes it thicker and more rigid.   This means that the stomach can’t hold as much and doesn’t stretch or move as it should when you’re digesting food. This stiff walled stomach is sometimes

Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST)

Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours (MPNSTs) is rare. It is a type of peripheral nerve sheath tumour that is cancerous (malignant). Most peripheral nerve sheath tumours are not cancerous (benign). A tumour is a lump or growth in the body. One type of non cancerous peripheral nerve sheath tumour is called a schwannoma. What is a malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumour? Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours are a type of peripheral nerve sheath tumour. These cancers begin in the layer (nerve sheath) that cover the peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerves send messages between the brain and spinal cord and the rest

Mediastinal germ cell tumours

The mediastinum  is the area in the centre of the chest, between the lungs. It is pronounced media-sty-num. Mediastinal germ cell tumours are a type of tumour that grow in the mediastinum. They develop in a type of cell called germ cells. There are different types of mediastinal germ cell tumours. Some mediastinal germ cell tumours are non cancerous (benign). Your treatment depends on what type of mediastinal germ cell tumour you have. Treatment options include surgery and chemotherapy. What are mediastinal germ cell tumours? Germ cell tumours develop in germ cells. These are the cells in the body that develop into

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC)

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare type of skin cancer. It starts in the Merkel cells, which are usually in the top layer of the skin (the epidermis). These cells are near the nerve endings and they help us respond to touch. MCC is very rare. Just over 1,500 people were diagnosed with MCC in England between 1999 and 2008. Because Merkel cells are a type of neuroendocrine cell, MCC is also called a neuroendocrine tumour (NET) of the skin. Risks and causes of MCC There are some factors that increase your risk of developing Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC).

Treatments for neuroblastoma

Doctors plan your child’s treatment in one of the major children’s cancer centres. Your child has most of their treatment in this specialist centre. They might have some care at a hospital closer to home. Children’s cancer centres have teams of specialists who know about neuroblastoma and the best way to treat them.  The main treatments include: surgery chemotherapy radiotherapy immunotherapy Decisions about treatment The specialist team plan treatment based on several factors, including your child’s age. Your child’s treatment depends on their risk group. A pathologist  looks at the neuroblastoma cells under a microscope. This along with the scans and other

Treatment for phaeochromocytomas

The main treatment for phaeochromocytoma is surgery. Other treatments include internal radiotherapy, external radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Your treatment depends on different factors including: the size of the tumour whether it has spread your general health and fitness A team of doctors and other professionals discuss the best treatment and care for you. They are called a multidisciplinary team (MDT). The team usually includes a: specialist surgeon doctor specialising in hormone disorders (endocrinologist) cancer doctor (oncologist) doctor specialising in the diseases of tissues or cells (pathologist) doctor specialised in reading scans (radiologist) clinical nurse specialist (CNS) You may need to travel

Treatment for pseudomyxoma peritonei

The main treatments for pseudomyxoma peritonei (PMP) are surgery and chemotherapy. Your treatment depends on the size of the cancer and your general health. You might not start treatment straight away. Your doctor closely monitors your cancer in case you need treatment in the future. This is called watch and wait.  If you need treatment you might have: surgery combined with chemotherapy into the tummy (abdomen) surgery to remove as much cancer as possible (debulking surgery) chemotherapy Watch and wait Your doctor might decide to closely monitor your cancer if it’s small and slow growing and you don’t currently need

Treating retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is rare and so your child will go to a specialist centre for treatment. There are different treatments such as freezing and laser therapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery. The treatment your child has depends on several things including the size of the cancer and if it is in one or both eyes. Treatment centres There are 2 specialist retinoblastoma centres in England and they are: The Royal London Hospital Birmingham Children’s Hospital These 2 centres serve all parts of the UK including Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. They have teams of specialists who know a lot about retinoblastoma and

Treatment for small bowel cancer

Your treatment will depend on what type of small bowel cancer you have. This page is about the treatment you might have if you have small bowel adenocarcinoma. This is the most common type of small bowel cancer.  Treatment for other types of small bowel cancer, such as neuroendocrine tumours and lymphoma will be different. Deciding which treatment you need Your doctor will talk to you about the treatment they suggest. They will explain its benefits and the possible side effects. Your treatment will depend on: where your cancer is how big it is and whether it has spread (the stage) the type

Treatment for small bowel neuroendocrine tumours

The treatment you have depends on a number of things. This includes where the cancer started, its size and whether it has spread (the stage). Surgery is the main treatment for small bowel neuroendocrine tumours. But surgery isn’t always possible. Some small bowel neuroendocrine tumours might have already started to spread when you are diagnosed. Or you might not be well enough to have it. You continue to have treatment to help your symptoms if surgery isn’t an option. Deciding which treatment you need A team of doctors and other professionals discuss the best treatment and care for you. They

Treatment by type of stomach NET

The treatment you have for a stomach neuroendocrine tumour (NET) depends on a number of things. This includes the type of NET and whether it has spread. Doctors call this the stage of the cancer. NETs grow at different rates, but they often grow very slowly. Some might not grow at all for months or years. So, you might not need treatment straight away. Your doctor might ask you to have regular tests to keep an eye on it. Which treatment do I need? A team of doctors and other professionals discuss the best treatment and care for you. They

Thymus gland cancer

Cancer of the thymus gland is rare. Most cancers that start in the thymus gland are called thymomas. There’s also a much rarer form of thymus gland cancer called thymic carcinoma. What is the thymus gland? The thymus gland is in your chest, in between your lungs. A gland is an organ in your body that makes and releases substances such as hormones. The thymus gland is part of our lymphatic system . It’s involved in the development of a type of white blood cell called a T lymphocyte. These white blood cells are part of your immune system .

Treating Wilms tumour

Doctors plan your child’s treatment in one of the UK’s children’s cancer centres. Your child has most of their treatment in this specialist centre, but some care might take place at a hospital closer to home. Children’s cancer centres have teams of specialists who know about Wilms tumours and the best way to treat them. Wilms tumour is curable in about 9 out of 10 children (about 90%). The main treatments include: chemotherapy for almost all children surgery for all children radiotherapy for some children In the UK and many other countries, children usually start treatment without having a biopsy if the tumour looks

Treating tonsil cancer

The main treatments for tonsil cancer are surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. You might have a combination of these or one treatment on its own. The tonsils are part of the oropharynx and treatment is similar to other cancers of the oropharynx. Treatment by stage Staging is a way of describing the size of cancer and how far it has grown. We have information about treatment for early and advanced cancer. Your doctor will tell you more about the stage of your cancer and the treatment you will have. There is an increase in the number of tonsil cancers that are

Treating tongue cancer

The main treatments for tongue cancer are surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, either combined or on their own. Your treatment depends on how big the cancer is and whether it has spread (the stage). It also depends on which part of the tongue is affected. Treating the oral tongue The front two thirds of the tongue (oral tongue) are treated like a mouth cancer. Early stage Early cancer means your cancer is smaller than 4cm and is contained within the tongue. The most common treatment is surgery to remove the affected area. You might also have radiotherapy after surgery to try

Placental site trophoblastic tumour and epithelioid trophoblastic tumour

Placental site trophoblastic tumours (PSTTs) and epithelioid trophoblastic tumours (ETTs) are cancers that happen after pregnancy. They are extremely rare and are slow growing.  What are placental site trophoblastic tumours and epithelioid trophoblastic tumours? These tumours are part of a group of conditions called gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD). GTD is the name for abnormal cells or tumours that grow from the tissue that forms in the womb during pregnancy. Less than 1 in 100 (less than 1%) of GTDs are placental site trophoblastic tumours or epithelioid trophoblastic tumours. In PSTT and ETT the tumour develops from the cells that grow

Recovery package for cancer

The recovery package is a set of interventions that your healthcare team uses. An intervention means that you and your team find ways to help you with your care needs and worries as they come up. It helps to improve your experience of living with cancer. The recovery package aims to support people affected by cancer to: feel more in control improve their quality of life Your medical team at the hospital and GP work together to make sure you receive the recovery package. The recovery package is available throughout England. In Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, there are similar

How do I mentally prepare for cancer treatment?

You can help yourself to get ready for cancer treatment by looking after your mental wellbeing. Focussing on your mental health is one part of prehabilitation. This is a programme of advice and support that can help to prepare you for treatment. The other parts are eating a varied diet and being physically active. Focusing on these three areas, in whatever time you have before treatment starts, can help you: feel more in control of your health cope better during treatment recover better And by making it part of life with cancer, it can help you to live well in

How do I physically prepare for cancer treatment ?

You can help yourself to get ready for cancer treatment by being physically active. Being more active and exercising is one part of prehabilitation. This is a programme of advice and support that can help to prepare you for treatment. The other parts are eating a varied diet and looking after your mental wellbeing. Focusing on these three areas, in whatever time you have before treatment starts can: help you feel more in control of your health cope better during treatment recover better And by making it part of life with cancer, it can help you to live well in the

What should I eat to prepare for cancer treatment ?

You can help yourself to get ready for cancer treatment by trying to eat a wide range of foods in the right proportions, also called a varied diet. This includes eating enough protein, calories and other nutrients. Eating a varied diet is one part of prehabilitation. This is a programme of advice and support that can help to prepare you for treatment. The other parts are being physically active and looking after your mental wellbeing. Focusing on these three areas, in whatever time you have before treatment starts, can help you: feel more in control of your health cope better during

What is prehabilitation ?

Prehabilitation (prehab) means getting ready for cancer treatment in whatever time you have before it starts. It is a programme of support and advice that some NHS hospitals are using. It covers three particular parts of your health: what you’re eating and your weight physical activity or exercise mental wellbeing Stopping smoking and cutting down on alcohol can also help. It helps while you’re having treatment, with your recovery, as well as improving your overall health. How does prehabilitation help? At diagnosis, your medical team should screen you for any problems in the three areas above. Research shows that if you

Signs and symptoms of cancer

Spotting cancer at an early stage saves lives, so tell your doctor if you notice anything that isn’t normal for you. You don’t need to try and remember all the signs and symptoms of cancer – listen to your body and talk to your doctor if you notice anything that isn’t normal for you. Signs and symptoms are more often caused by something less serious than cancer – but if it is cancer, spotting it early can make a real difference. This page covers some of the key signs and symptoms of cancer, which could help you spot cancer early. We

X-rays

An x-ray is a test that uses small amounts (doses) of radiation to take pictures of the inside of your body. They are a good way to look at bones and can show changes caused by cancer or other medical conditions. X-rays can also show changes in other organs, such as the lungs. You usually have x-rays in the imaging department of the hospital, taken by a radiographer. But in an emergency they are sometimes done on the ward.  Types There are different types of tests using x-rays, including: chest x-rays to show fluid, signs of infection, an enlarged heart or tumours in the chest

Womb biopsy

The only way to definitely diagnose womb cancer is to take a sample of the tissue lining the womb. This is called an endometrial biopsy. Your doctor sends the sample to the lab. This is where a pathologist checks it for abnormal or cancerous cells. There are different ways to take a biopsy of the womb lining. Aspiration biopsy To have this test you lie on your back on a couch with your knees up and feet apart. You’ll need to remove your underwear, but you will have a sheet to cover yourself with. Your doctor or nurse gently opens your vagina with a speculum. This is just the same as when

Vulval biopsy 

A vulval biopsy means removing a sample of tissue from the vulva. This is the best way to find out whether or not you have vulval cancer or another vulval condition. Preparing for your vulval biopsy You usually have this test as a day patient using a local anaesthetic. Rarely, you may have it under a general anaesthetic. This is when you are asleep and don’t feel anything. Your doctor or nurse will ask you to sign a consent form once they have given you information about the test. Eating and drinking You usually have a vulval biopsy under local anaesthetic,

Video of your vocal cords (videostroboscopy)

This test uses a long, thin, flexible tube called an endoscope to examine your voice box (larynx) and vocal cords while you speak. The endoscope has a camera and light and is connected to a video monitor and recorder. It helps your doctor to see the movement of your vocal cords while you speak. This test is also called a videostroboscopy, or videolaryngoscopy with stroboscopy. Why do you have a videostroboscopy? You have a video of your vocal cords to help your doctor see how they move when you speak. It also gives your doctor a chance to look for abnormalities on

Video of your throat and larynx (transnasal oesophagoscopy)

In this test the doctor uses a long, flexible telescope through your nose. This is to make a video of the inside of your: nose throat voice box (larynx) upper part of the food pipe (oesophagus) The test is called a transnasal oesophagoscopy. Why do you have a transnasal oesophagoscopy? This test helps your doctor to view your voice box (larynx) and food pipe (oesophagus). You might have it instead of having an endoscopy. This might happen if you aren’t well enough to have a general anaesthetic. Endoscopy instruments are bigger. You usually need a general anaesthetic for an endoscopy. How to prepare for

Vaginal biopsy

Your doctor may want you to have a biopsy. This means removing a sample of tissue from the vagina. You might have this done during a colposcopy or as a separate test. The doctor sends the sample to the laboratory where a pathologist  examines it.  You might have:  an excision biopsy a punch biopsy Why do you have this test? You have a vaginal biopsy to find out if you have pre cancerous changes (VAIN) or cancer of the vagina. If you have cancer, looking at the cells under a microscope will show which type of vaginal cancer it is. Your doctor may

Ultrasound scan of the ovaries

Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the body. It can show the ovaries, womb and surrounding structures. You might have this test to help diagnose ovarian cancer.  To have an ultrasound scan of the ovaries, your doctor or radiographer moves a probe over the lower part of your tummy. You may also have an internal vaginal ultrasound. This is when your doctor gently puts the probe into your vagina. This is also called a transvaginal ultrasound scan. We have separate information about what happens during a transvaginal ultrasound scan.  Why you have it

Ultrasound scan

An ultrasound scan is a procedure that uses high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the inside of your body. The ultrasound scanner has a probe that gives off sound waves. The probe looks a bit like a microphone. The sound waves bounce off the organs inside your body, and the probe picks them up. The probe links to a computer that turns the sound waves into a picture on the screen. Ultrasound scans aren’t painful but can cause some discomfort. You might have it at one of the following: your GP surgery local community clinic in your

Transvaginal ultrasound scan

An ultrasound scan is a procedure that uses high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the inside of your body. The ultrasound scanner has a probe that gives off sound waves. The probe looks a bit like a microphone. The sound waves bounce off the organs inside your body, and the probe picks them up. The probe links to a computer that turns the sound waves into a picture on the screen. Ultrasound scans aren’t painful but can cause some discomfort. You might have it at one of the following: your GP surgery local community clinic in your

Transrectal ultrasound scan (TRUS) and biopsy for prostate cancer

A transrectal ultrasound scan (TRUS) is an examination of the prostate gland using ultrasound. Your doctor might take samples of tissue from the prostate during this test. This is a TRUS guided biopsy. It can help to diagnose prostate cancer. You usually have an MRI scan before your TRUS guided biopsy. The MRI scan helps your doctor decide whether you need a biopsy and where to take the biopsies from. What is a TRUS? Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the body. A prostate ultrasound scan can show changes in your

Transperineal biopsy for prostate cancer

A transperineal biopsy is a needle biopsy to look for cancer cells in the prostate. This helps to diagnose prostate cancer. Your doctor puts a needle into the prostate through the skin behind the testicles (perineum). They take a number of samples, which are sent to the laboratory. In the laboratory, a specialist doctor looks at the samples under the microscope. Preparing for your transperineal biopsy You usually have this test in the outpatient department under local anaesthetic. Sometimes, you may have it in the operating theatre under a general anaesthetic. This is when you are asleep and don’t feel anything. Your doctor

Tissue typing

Tissue typing is a set of tests that are done with your blood and saliva. You might have it if your doctors think that you need a stem cell or bone marrow transplant  from someone else (donor transplant). It is to show how closely a possible stem cell or bone marrow donor’s tissue matches your own. You might also hear this test called other names such as: HLA tissue typing HLA typing Histocompatibility testing HLA crossmatching You usually have one or more of the following tests: a blood test a swab taken from the inside of your cheek (buccal swab)

Thoracoscopy and pleural biopsy

Thoracoscopy is a test to look at the space between your lung and chest wall. This is the pleural cavity. You might have a thoracoscopy to check for signs of cancer such as mesothelioma. It is a small operation. The doctor uses a flexible tube with a light and video camera attached. This is called a thoracoscope. They use it to take samples (biopsies) from the tissues that cover your lung (pleura). Why you might have it You have a thoracoscopy to look inside your chest to see possible areas of cancer. Doctors use a thoracoscopy to help diagnose cancers

Surgical biopsy for lung cancer

During a surgical biopsy for lung cancer, your surgeon takes a sample of the lung tissue by making small cuts in your chest. The surgeon carries out your biopsy in one of the following ways: keyhole surgery , also called video assisted thoracoscopy surgery (VATS) open surgery, through a small cut in the chest wall (small thoracotomy) You have this test under general anaesthetic . So, you will be asleep and won’t feel anything. Why do I need a surgical biopsy? A surgical biopsy of the lung can help diagnose lung cancer. You might have this test if: a CT

Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC)

A percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (per-kew-tay-nee-us trans-hep-attic col-an-jee-og-raf-ee) is a way of looking at your bile ducts using x-rays. This test is also called PTC.  Your doctor puts a long thin needle through the skin and into your liver and bile ducts. They take x-rays of the pancreas, gallbladder and bile ducts. They can also take samples (biopsies) of any abnormal looking areas. You usually have a PTC if you can’t have an ERCP for any reason or if you have had an ERCP but it didn’t work. For example, if doctors weren’t able to take samples of tissue or drain the bile ducts. Why

Penile dynamic sentinel lymph node biopsy

A dynamic sentinel lymph node biopsy (DSLNB) is a test to find out if there is cancer in the lymph nodes near your cancer. Not everyone with penile cancer needs a sentinel lymph node biopsy. You might have this test if there is no obvious sign that cancer cells have spread to the lymph nodes after: you have been examined by your specialist you have had an ultrasound scan It means that your doctor can avoid removing all the lymph nodes in the groin if this is not necessary. You may have to travel to a specialist hospital for this test. This is

Pelvic examination under anaesthetic

This is an internal examination under general anaesthetic . An examination under general anaesthetic is also called an EUA. The examination includes checking your: cervix, vagina and vulva womb bladder anus and rectum (back passage) Your doctor (gynaecological oncologist) can take samples of tissue (biopsies) during the test if necessary. Why you might have a pelvic examination under anaesthetic You might have this examination to check for signs of cancer. It can help your doctor diagnose a number of cancers such as: Preparing for a pelvic examination under anaesthetic Your doctor checks that you are fit and well enough for a general anaesthetic. Let

Pelvic examination

A pelvic examination is when a doctor or a specialist nurse examines your pelvis. Your pelvis is the area between your hip bones. It contains the pelvic organs, including the: bladder lower part of the bowel In women, it also contains the female reproductive system . This includes the: ovaries fallopian tubes womb cervix vagina You may also hear your doctor calling this test an internal or vaginal examination. During the pelvic examination, your doctor looks and feels for anything that doesn’t feel normal. They might refer you for more tests or treatment if they find anything abnormal. Your doctor

Panendoscopy

A panendoscopy is a test to look at your upper airway. This includes your: mouth nose throat voice box top of your food pipe A specialist doctor does the test using a panendoscope, which is a series of connected telescopes. They look through one end and there is a camera and light at the other.  Why you have it You might have a panendoscopy to: get a more detailed look at an abnormal area  take tissue samples from an abnormal area (a biopsy) This is a common test if you have symptoms that could be due to head and neck cancer.  Before your test You

PSA test

The PSA test is a blood test that measures the amount of prostate specific antigen (PSA) in your blood. It can help to diagnose prostate cancer.  Your doctor or nurse takes a sample of your blood. This can be done at your GP practice. They then send this off to a laboratory to check the amount of PSA.  When you have the test You might have a PSA test if you: have symptoms that could be caused by prostate cancer are aged 50 and over and have asked your GP for a test Doctors also check your PSA level as you

PET-MRI scan

A PET-MRI scan combines a PET scan and an MRI scan into one to give detailed information about your cancer.  PET stands for positron emission tomography. It uses a mildly radioactive liquid (radioactive tracer) to show up areas of your body where cells are more active than normal.  MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging. It uses magnetism and radio waves to create cross section pictures of the body. It shows up soft tissues very clearly. You usually have a PET-MRI scan in the nuclear medicine or radiology department as an outpatient. These scanners tend to be only in the major

PET-CT scan

A PET-CT scan combines a CT scan and a PET scan. It gives detailed information about your cancer. The CT scan takes a series of x-rays from all around your body and puts them together to create a 3 dimensional (3D) picture. The PET scan uses a mildly radioactive liquid (radioactive tracer) to show up areas of your body where cells are more active than normal.  You usually have a PET-CT scan in the radiology department as an outpatient. A radiographer operates the scanner. It usually takes between 30 and 60 minutes. These scanners tend to be available only in the major cancer hospitals. So you

PET scan

A PET scan is a test that creates 3 dimensional (3D) pictures of the inside of your body. PET stands for positron emission tomography. The PET scan uses a mildly radioactive liquid (radioactive tracer) to show up areas of your body where cells are more active than normal. It’s used to help diagnose some conditions, including cancer. It can also help to find out where and whether cancer has spread.    You usually have a PET scan in the radiology or nuclear medicine department as an outpatient. These scanners tend to be only in the major cancer hospitals. So you might have to

Neuroendoscopy to take a sample of tissue

Neuroendoscopy is a way of taking samples of tissue from a brain tumour. Doctors take samples of tissue (biopsy) to look at it under a microscope. This helps your doctor decide the best treatment for you. You may also have a neuroendoscopy to: remove fluid from the fluid filled spaces of the brain (ventricles) remove all or part of the brain tumour You usually have a neuroendoscopy under general anaesthetic. This means that you will be asleep and won’t feel anything. Having a neuroendoscopy sounds like a frightening procedure, but it is quite safe. Doctors who carry out these procedures

Needle biopsy through the skin for lung cancer 

This test is also called a percutaneous lung biopsy. A doctor called a radiologist takes a sample of lung tissue by passing a needle into the lung. They use a CT scanner or ultrasound to ensure they know the right place to take the sample. You have this test with a local anaesthetic . It takes about 30 to 45 minutes. Why do I need a biopsy through the skin? You might have this test if your doctor has seen an abnormal looking area in your lung or airways using an x-ray or CT scan. What do I need to

Needle biopsy of the thyroid

You have this test to find out if the lump in your thyroid needs further treatment. Preparing for your test You are able to eat and drink normally before a biopsy. Take your medicines as normal. But if you are taking any blood thinning medicines you might need to stop them before the test. Your doctor or nurse will tell you when to stop. You will need to remove any clothing around your neck such as a tie or scarf. You will also be asked to remove any jewellery such as a necklace or chain. You will lie on your back on a

Neck lymph node ultrasound and biopsy

During a neck lymph node biopsy, your doctor uses an ultrasound scanner to help them take a small amount of lymph node tissue using a fine needle. Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the body. The ultrasound scanner has a probe that gives off sound waves. The sound waves bounce off the structures inside your body, and the probe picks them up. The probe links to a computer that turns the sound waves into a picture. You normally have this test as an outpatient procedure in the hospital’s imaging department. Why

Nasoendoscopy

A nasoendoscopy is part of a normal ear, nose and throat examination. It is a procedure to look at the inside of the: nose back of the tongue throat voice box Your doctor passes a thin rigid or flexible tube called a nasoendoscope through your nostril into your nose. The tube has a camera and a bright light at the end. Why you might have it You may have a nasoendoscopy so that your doctor can check for any abnormal looking areas. This is a common test if you have symptoms that could be due to head and neck cancer.  Preparing for

Multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) scan for prostate cancer

MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging. It is a type of scan that creates pictures using magnetism and radio waves. MRI scans produce pictures from angles all around the body and shows up soft tissues very clearly.  The multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) is a special type of MRI scan that produces a more detailed picture of your prostate gland than a standard MRI scan does. You usually have an mpMRI scan if doctors suspect that you have prostate cancer. Why you might have an mpMRI It is important to know that an mpMRI scan alone cannot diagnose prostate cancer. But it can

Mediastinoscopy 

Mediastinoscopy is a test that examines the mediastinum. This is the centre of your chest and area between your lungs. It contains: the heart the main blood vessels lymph nodes (glands) the food pipe (oesophagus) The mediastinoscopy takes between 45 to 60 minutes. You have a general anaesthetic to have this test.  Why do I need a mediastinoscopy? You might have this test to see if cancer cells have spread into the lymph nodes around the windpipe.  Preparing for your mediastinoscopy You see a doctor before the mediastinoscopy. They’ll ask some general questions about your health. You will also need some other tests before

Mammogram

A mammogram is an x-ray of your breasts. X-rays use high energy rays to take pictures of the inside of your body. You might have mammograms: as part of the breast cancer screening programme to check for cancer if you have symptoms that could be due to breast cancer. This is called a diagnostic mammogram The health professionals who take mammograms are called mammographers. The mammogram itself usually only takes a few minutes, but the appointment may last about 30 minutes. Mammograms for breast screening Mammograms for breast screening can help to find breast cancer early when they are too

MRI scan

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) is a type of scan that uses magnetism and radio waves to take pictures of inside the body. The scan takes between 15 and 90 minutes. You might have one to find out whether you have cancer and if you do to measure how big it is and whether it has spread. You might also have one to see how well treatment is working. It is a safe test. If you have an injection of contrast dye it can cause a headache, dizziness or a warm flushed feeling An MRI is a type of scan that creates

MRCP and MRI scan

MRCP stands for magnetic resonance cholangio pancreatography (col-an-jee-oh pan-kree-at-og-raf-ee). An MRCP scan is a type of MRI scan that you have in an MRI scanner. MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging. An MRI scan produces pictures from angles all around the body and shows up soft tissues very clearly.  These scans create pictures using magnetism and radio waves to give detailed pictures of your: pancreas gallbladder bile ducts liver You might have an MRI scan of your tummy (abdomen) at the same time as the MRCP. You usually have these scans in the x-ray (radiology) department as an outpatient. It can

Radioactive scans for neuroendocrine tumours (NETs)

Radioactive scans can help your doctors diagnose some types of neuroendocrine tumours. You have an injection of a low dose radioactive substance, which can show up on a scan. Radioactive scans include: octreotide scans (or Octreoscans) – these are also called somatostatin receptor scintigraphy scans tektroyd scans gallium dotatate PET (positron emission tomography) scans You might also have an mIBG scan, but this is less common now. mIBG stands for metaiodobenzylguanidine. What are radioactive scans and why do I need one? Octreotide, dotatate and mIBG are substances that some neuroendocrine cells take up (absorb). Doctors can attach a radioactive substance

Lymph node ultrasound and biopsy – under the arm (axillary) 

Cancer can sometimes spread into the lymph nodes under the arm (axilla). This can happen with different types of cancer, including breast cancer. To check the lymph nodes under your arm for breast cancer cells, you have an ultrasound scan. Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the body. The ultrasound scanner has a microphone that gives off sound waves. The sound waves bounce off the organs inside your body and are picked up by the microphone. The microphone links to a computer and turns the sound waves into a picture. If

Lymph node ultrasound and biopsy – groin

Cancer can sometimes spread into the lymph nodes in the groin. Your groin is the area at the top of your legs, between the hips. This can happen with different types of cancer, such as anal and penile cancer.  To check the lymph nodes in your groin for cancer cells, your doctor checks the groin for swollen (enlarged) lymph nodes. You then might have an ultrasound scan to check the nodes. Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to create a picture of a part of the body. If doctors find any abnormal lymph nodes, they use the ultrasound to

Lumbar puncture

A lumbar puncture is a test to check the fluid that circulates around the brain and spinal cord. This is called the cerebrospinal fluid or CSF. Why do I need a lumbar puncture? A lumbar puncture can check for cancer cells or for infection in the CSF. Doctors remove some of the CSF to test for cancer cells. They use a needle to take a sample of the CSF from your lower back. You normally have this test in the outpatient department under local anaesthetic. This means you are awake but the area is numb.  What Is a Lumbar puncture? A

Liver biopsy 

A biopsy means removing a sample of cells or tissue and looking at it under a microscope. You may have a liver biopsy to help diagnose liver cancer. But not everyone needs to have a liver biopsy. Doctors can often diagnose liver cancer just by looking at the scans. You usually won’t have a liver biopsy if your doctor thinks: they can remove the cancer you may be able to have a liver transplant This is because there is a small risk that a liver biopsy could spread the cancer along the path of the biopsy needle. It is important to

Laryngoscopy

A laryngoscopy is a test that an ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialist uses to look at the: back of your throat (pharynx) voice box (larynx) The ENT specialist uses a thin tube called a laryngoscope to do this test. They can see the inside of your throat very clearly. You have this test under general anaesthetic. This means that you are asleep and won’t feel anything. Your doctor might also call this test an examination under anaesthesia (EUA). They may take samples of tissue (biopsy) of any abnormal areas. Preparing for a laryngoscopy You might have a blood test 2 days beforehand to check

Laparoscopy

Laparoscopy is a small operation to look inside your tummy (abdomen) and the area between your hips (pelvis). Laparoscopy is also known as keyhole surgery or minimally invasive surgery. It can help diagnose certain types of cancer. It is also a very common procedure used to treat and diagnose many other non cancerous conditions. A laparoscopy involves your surgeon making several small cuts (incisions) instead of a large incision across your abdomen. The surgeon places hollow tubes inside the incisions. These are called ports. Your surgeon puts a thin tube with a light and a camera (laparoscope) through one of

LLETZ – Large Loop Excision of the Transformation Zone

LLETZ stands for large loop excision of the transformation zone. It’s also known as loop electrosurgical excision (LEEP) or loop diathermy. Your colposcopist uses a thin wire loop to remove the transformation zone of the cervix. The wire has an electrical current running through it, which cuts the tissue and seals the wound at the same time. The transformation zone is the area around the opening of the cervix. LLETZ is an outpatient treatment and takes up to 15 minutes. You usually have it under local anaesthetic. Why you might have LLETZ LLETZ is a treatment for abnormal cervical cells picked

Kidney biopsy

A kidney biopsy is a procedure to take a small piece of tissue from the kidney. A specialist doctor (pathologist) looks at it under a microscope and can tell if you have kidney cancer and which type it is. Knowing this helps your doctor decide on the best treatment for you.  Why you might have a kidney biopsy Your doctor will ask you to have a kidney biopsy to: find out if you have kidney cancer if other tests haven’t been clear help them decide if a small kidney cancer can be watched before being treated (active surveillance) tell them

IVU (Intravenous urogram) or IVP (Intravenous pyelogram)

An intravenous urogram (IVU) is a test that looks at the whole of your urinary system. It’s sometimes called an intravenous pyelogram (IVP). It looks at the: kidneys bladder tubes that connect the kidney with the bladder (ureters) The male urinary system The female urinary system The test uses a colourless dye, also called contrast medium. This shows up the soft tissues of the urinary system on a normal x-ray. Why do I need an IVU test? An IVU test can show if cancer is growing in any part of your urinary system. The cancer will show up as a